Blackwater River Lab

Madison Powers
Stephen Harris
Tyler Graf
November 8th, 2011

Introduction

    The purpose of this lab was for the 2011 AP Environmental Science E Block class to determine the health of the Blackwater River shed during the months of October and November. Data was to be collected using new methods to the students. After gathering this data and learning new scientific processes, the data was to be analyzed to determine the health of this specific section of the Blackwater River.

Materials & Methods

    A vast array of materials were used in the study. The chemical tests that were used were pH, nitrogen, phosphate, turbidity, coliform bacteria, and dissolved oxygen. Many of these were tablets that were mixed with a specific amount of the sample water. Other materials include nets, wooden boards, plastic buckets, plastic cups, thermometer, white plastic trays, marking ribbons, magnifying glasses, bark covers, glass vials and tubes, spoons, a shovel, and identification sheets for macro invertebrates.
    A pit trap was set up to collect invertebrates. General observations were first taken that day, observing the weather conditions, temperatures, and any changes in the area. To set up the pit trap, first an area for the trap had to be selected. This area, known as site 4, was located south east of the swinging bridge on the Blackwater River. The site was under a large dead tree, surrounded by tall grasses and shrubs, bordered by a small area with standing water. Once the area had been selected, a wooden board, two plastic cups, shovel, and colored marking ribbons were collected. Next, a hole large enough for the cup to sit in and be even with the ground was dug with the shovel, right next to the large dead tree. The cup was placed inside the hole, and the second cup was placed inside the first one for easier data collection. Next, a wooden board was pushed into the ground so that it was perpendicular to the ground but also touching the edge of the cup. Two sticks were used to hold the board in place, and brush and grasses were spread around it to make the area look and seem like it was natural. The reason for the board was so that when animals run into the board, they crawl along it, get to where the cup was on the board, and fall into the cup. Lastly, a piece of bark was placed over the cup to keep out rain water and debris.
    When data was collected, the first thing that was done at the site was a general observation of the weather, wind, and landscape. The wind speed was done using the Beaufort Scale and was a general guess. The temperature was done using an electronic thermometer. To test the air temperature, the thermometer was dried and held up in the air, away from any disturbances, and the temperature was recorded. Next, the probe of the thermometer was put into the soil next to the pit trap, and the temperature was recorded. The thermometer was also placed in the water, after having been dried off and cleaned of debris, and the water temperature was recorded. Next, the pit trap was checked. The bark was removed, and the top cup was taken out. The contents of the cup were emptied into a white tray and magnifying glasses were used to observe the contents. Any invertebrates were recorded.
    At a nearby tributary site a method involving a net and disturbances upstream was used to capture invertebrates. An area was assigned, site 4. Site 4, where the data was collected, was about 40 feet downstream from the road under which the tributary crossed. A net was placed perpendicular to the stream bottom, allowing for nothing to flow underneath the net. Next, disturbances were made upstream by stirring the water and organic matter at the bottom of the tributary with a stick. The organic matter floated into the net. The net was removed from the stream and the contents were put into a white plastic tray that had about an inch of water in it. The contents of the tray were allowed time to settle. Once settled, the contents were observed. Macro invertebrate identification sheets and magnifying glasses were used to figure the different organisms in the tray. These organisms were recorded in a spreadsheet. The contents of the tray were then poured back into the tributary. Chemical tests were also done on site 4. These tests included pH, nitrogen, phosphate, dissolved oxygen, coliform, and turbidity. The procedure for these tests was included in the packaging and the directions were followed to gather the most accurate results. The soil, air, and water temperature were also taken again, using the previously mentioned method.

General Narrative on Observations

Figure 1.1 The Site Locations

    On the first day, October 17th, 2011, at around 12:05 AM, arrival was made at the site. The ground in the floodplain was very wet, due to the recent heavy rains. There were large puddles everywhere, and the ground seemed to be thoroughly soaked. The weather was overcast. There was very little sun, lots of dark gray clouds. The area that made up all of the smaller study sites was very grassy and had many small shrubs including goldenrod in the areas that got flooded by the river. Areas that were not flooded by the river tended to have larger shrubs and small to medium sized trees. These trees included maples and ash trees. These trees were no more than 4-6 inches in diameter. A site was selected for the set up of a pit trap, this being site 4. The area around the pit trap had one large dead stump in the immediate area of the trap. The site was covered by the shade of some maple trees, one a foot in diameter, and the rest 4-6 inches in diameter. On the ground around the trap, there was a mix of dead leaves, dead grasses, and dead branches. The soil here was very wet and compost like. Much of the debris on the ground had been packed down by the rain, including the grass. There were a few ferns and vines surrounding the dead stump. To the immediate left right of the trap was depression filled with water.

Figure 1.2 The Pit Trap Locations

    On October 18th, 2011, at 11:10 AM, the site was very similar to  the way it had been the day before. The weather was overcast, again, and it was still fairly cloudy, with the sun trying to break through every once in a while. The ground was still very damp from the recent rains, though it had dried out a bit from the previous day. The wind had been the same as the previous day, and the temperatures were similar. The air temperature on this day was 58 degrees Fahrenheit, and the ground temperature was 51.9 degrees Fahrenheit. The wind speed was rated at Beaufort Scales Force 2 Intermittent. The cup had filled halfway with water, and there were no visible organisms in it. There were no organisms in the cup on this day. The only major change in the area surrounding site 4 was that the grass had been matted down very flat, possibly due to the rain or animals.

Figure 1.3 The Tributary Site Locations

    On October 25th, 2011, at 11:10 AM, a new site was used for data collection. The weather this day was much different from the previous days. There were fewer clouds in the sky, and the sun was trying to break through, but the wind was faster and the temperature colder. The air temperature on this day was 54.8 degrees Fahrenheit and the ground temperature was 47.8 degrees Fahrenheit. The wind speed was rated a Beaufort Scales Force 5. Pit trap 4 had only 1 slug and 1 worm in it. The ground had dried out a lot, no longer soaking wet with puddles but almost dry to the touch. The new site, the tributary site, was located along the road that headed west from where the bus had been parked at the base of the ski area. There was a culvert that ran under this road that the tributary flowed through. Site 4 was the assigned site. This site had a large amount of dead leaves on the ground, and many deciduous trees overhanging the tributary. These trees were over similar size to the ones at the pit trap. Much of the vegetation was small shrubs on either side of the tributary, along with the small and medium sized deciduous trees. The bottom of the tributary at site 4 had a large amount of sediment. The water was no deeper than 6-8 inches and there was a large amount of leaf litter in the water. Some small grasses were growing in the water as well. Chemical data and invertebrates were gathered for site 4. The pH was 5, the nitrogen was 0 PPM, the phosphate was 1 PPM, the turbidity was 0 JTU and the water temperature was 49.3 degrees Fahrenheit. The invertebrates gathered were 2 cagebuilding caddisflies, 10+ scuds, 4 beetle larva, 1 stonefly nymph, and 2 mayfly nymphs.

Data

Figure 2.1 General Observations/Data of the Site

Figure 2.2 The Chemical Data for the Tributary Sites

Figure 2.3 The Pit Trap Invertebrate Data

Figure 2.4 The Tributary Invertebrate Data

Analysis

    From interpreting the data, much can be said about the Blackwater River. The tributary had a large amount of indicator species, which are species that have a low tolerance for polluted waters. Caddisflies, stoneflies, and mayflies are all indicator species.  Coliform also is an indicator of how good the water quality is. 20 coliform per 100 ml, what was found at the tributary, is very low on the coliform spectrum. Anything under 200 coliform is good for swimming in, and 0 is good for drinking. 20 coliform is very low on this scale, so the water is relatively clean at site 3 of the tributary. The pit traps show a large majority of the gathered invertebrates to be beetles or slugs, which means there could be high abundances of each in the area, though there is not enough data to make a strong conclusion on. Also, from sites 1 to 4 the number of invertebrates descended. The vegetation in these sites varied greatly, one being open and grassy, and the other being wooded and covered with dead leaves.
    The chemical data also proved to be interesting for such a small amount of data. An interesting trend in the data is that the pH descends from 7 to 5 from site 1 to site 4. This could be due to the different organic matter at the different sites, and also the different sediment at each site. The turbidity at almost every site was 0 JTU, which means the water is very clear and the plants and organisms aren’t being blocked of too much sunlight. Another interesting piece of data is the dissolved oxygen. On the upstream side, it was 4 ppm. On the downstream side of the road, there were 0 ppm dissolved oxygen. This may be due to the culvert, the change in the tributaries flow speed, or the depth of the water. Nitrogen and phosphate levels are relatively low, which means there is not a large amount of runoff from outside sources into the tributary. What is interesting though is that the phosphate levels fluctuate from 4 ppm to 1 ppm to 4 ppm to 1 ppm in descending order of the sites. There is also 2 ppm nitrogen at site 2, which could be due to student error or by coincidence in this part of the tributary. The rest of the sites had 0 ppm nitrogen so site 2’s measurement seems out of the ordinary.  Either way, there are very low nitrogen and phosphate levels in the water, which means there is very little runoff of fertilizers and dead matter into the river, which is good for its health.
    Due to there being very little temperature and wind data, no trends can be determined for temperatures and wind speeds through the 3 days of testing.

Conclusion

    Based on the data that was gathered, the health of the Blackwater River is good. The data shows this, because there are relatively low levels of chemicals that indicate that the river health is bad, such as excessive nitrogen and phosphate levels. There also was also a good amount of indicator species, and because they were able to survive in the tributary, that must mean that the water was of good quality. Because there was presence of indicator species, it can be assumed that the water of the tributary is relatively clean and free of pollutants, which means that the water quality is good. Not much can be said about temperature and wind trends because not enough data was able to be collected. Based on visual observations, it does not seem like eutrophication is happening, and the low chemical levels support this. There did not seem to be a large amount of plant life in the water, and there was a reasonable amount of indicator species. All in all, the water quality and the health of the Blackwater River was good.
    There are numerous ways that this experiment could have been improved. One thing could have created variations in the data would be that numerous people collected the chemical and invertebrate data. Different people could have used different methods to gather data. Because of this, the data that was collected may not be accurate. A way to fix this in the future would be to have one person collect all the data, or make sure that every person used to exact same method. Another thing that changed the study was that there were only 3 days where data was collected. If there had been more days to collect data, more data could be collected and the study would have been more accurate.



Satellite Images Copyright Google Maps

Franklin Wastewater Treatment Plant

Madison Powers
October 31, 2011
Franklin, New Hampshire
1:30 PM

      A quick bus ride to nearby Franklin brought my AP Environmental class to the Franklin Wastewater Treatment Plant today. We get off the bus to a relatively nice day, minus the 6 inches of snow on the ground, and are greeted by a man named Ken Noyes, the Chief Operator of the plant and employee for 22 years. My first impression of Noyes was that he was a man who worked hard and was passionate about his job. He was to be our tour guide for the rest of the afternoon.
       Ken began with a little background on the plant. The plant was built in 1979 on the Merrimack River, as a part of the Clean Water Act, a government effort to clean rivers and public water of waste. This act made it illegal for wastes to be dumped in rivers, which at the time, had been very common, for it was one of the easiest ways to get rid of waste. The Franklin area used to be very industrial, and there were many textile mills on the edges of the Pemigewasset and Winnipesaukee Rivers, both of which join to create the Merrimack, on which the plant is located. Many of these textile mills, Ken explained, used dyes to color their materials, and these dyes were disposed of in the rivers. Ken grew up in a near by town, and said, "I grew up in that area, where you couldn't swim or fish in the Winnipesaukee," due to their dirtiness. He remembers seeing pieces of toilet paper and feces floating down the river as a kid. People dumped everything in the river, and the Wastewater Treatment Plant was the solution to this problem.

The Head Works

      Ken brought us through the main building, showing us how a majority of the plant was controlled. A large majority of the plant was controlled by computer, and many of the pump stations along the rivers were controlled by that one computer, too. The program kept track of the pH of the water (which was 7.23 at the time), the number of gallons coming in a day (today it was around 6 million gallons),  the microorganisms in the tanks, how fast the water was flowing, etc. The computer could do it all. Ken remember back before the computer, when it used to take 3 or more people to respond to an alarm at a pump station 40 minutes away, and now it only takes a click of a button, and can be done at home on a laptop instead of having to go out at 1 in the morning, for example. Ken explained that there were 14 major pump stations in the area that he could control, and over 60 miles of sewage lines connecting all of the towns along the Pemigewasset and Winnipesaukee Rivers, which is quite a large area.
      Ken brought us outside to where the water flowed into the plant, an area known as the head works. The smell outside was pretty bad, a smell of septic and sewage, but as soon as we walked over the top of the hill at the head works, I gagged a little. It was extremely overpowering, and the closer I got to the waste water, the worse it got. Eventually my nose just shut down, but the smell still lingered. Ken introduced us to these two tanks with water flowing fairly quickly through them, known as the head works, where the preliminary treatment was done. In these tanks were two mechanical screens which removed a majority of the large debris. "Anything flushed down the toilet shows up here," Ken said. From McDonald's toys, to 2x4s, to $3000 cash, Ken has seen it all, though 90% of the debris is feminine products and toilet paper. Ken said that 99% of the substance that flows through the head works is water, the other 1% being the solids. Also, even though 6+ million gallons of water flow through the plant each day, 70% of the state's households don't send their waste water to the plant. Many of them have their own septic systems, which later are brought to the plant via truck.

      Our next stop was the primary clarifier, a massive round tank with two rotating rake arms used to remove the solids from the water. There was an upper and lower arm. The upper arm removed the floatable solids, which are solids that float on the surface of the water, for example kitchen grease. The lower arm removed the heavy solids, which are the solids that settle to the bottom. Another type of solid in the water are the dissolved solids, which are the hardest to get out of the water. These three types of solids make up the total suspended solids, or the TSS, which the state requires that the plant removes 85% of the TSS from the waste water. Ken also mentioned another important thing here, the biochemical oxygen demand of the water, or the BOD. Ken said the waste puts an oxygen demand on the river, and "It will deplete the oxygen from the river," because it chokes out the oxygen that organisms in the river need to live. Ken said that tests for BOD are not good because they take five days to do, and by then, the water will have already cycled through the plant. 40-45% of the BOD is usually removed from the water though, which is good.

      From here, Ken brought us to the aeration tanks, where oxygen and microorganisms are pumped into the water to aid in the cleaning process. Ken said, "We don't add any chemicals at all to remove the solids  and BOD, it's all natural." Microorganisms are used to treat the water, eating the solids in the water to dispose of them. Ken has the ability to build up the population of the microorganisms in the tank depending on how much TSS there is. Generally in the summer there is much more solid waste, so he needs more "bugs" to eat it, whereas in the winter, there is much less and the microorganisms are less active. Ken also said, "I smell the tanks and it tells me what the microorganisms are like. I can tell if something is wrong by the smell." He knows what good and what's bad by the smell of the tanks, though I'm not really sure what would be considered a good smell and a bad smell there, for they all smelled bad to me.

Empty Aeration Tank

      We passed by one of the empty aeration tanks on our way to our next stop, and Ken talked about the diffusers that supply oxygen. There were many in the bottom of the tanks, as we could see, and were vital in the removal of the solids. He also mentioned that TSS usually is at about 250 mg/L and BOD is between 200-225 mg/L, which makes the removal of it easier, but when there is a large amount of water coming into the plant, for example after a big rain storm, the levels drop to sub 100 g/L levels, which makes the removal harder, so he opens more tanks to make it more likely the solids are removed. We arrived at the secondary clarifier, which is the same as the first, but it catches anything that is missed. Here is where the microorganisms are pumped out. Ken goes through about 2,800 pounds of bugs a day, and they usually last for a 6 day cycle. From the secondary clarifier they are pumped back to the aeration tanks. We noticed some seagulls at the secondary clarifier and Ken mentioned that the tanks often attract turkey vultures, bald eagles, and ducks. He's seeing many of these animals more frequently, and said, "I've seen things in my adult life that I never saw growing up," meaning the increase in animal life.

Cleaner Water at the Secondary Clarifier

      The last step was the disinfection of the waste water before it could be put into the Merrimack. We made our way to a little building where the water is disinfected using both chlorine and UV light. The UV light zaps the water for 0.23 seconds, changing the DNA of the cells so that they are no longer capable of disease or reproduction. Ken showed us the lights, and the "mountain dew" water, the fluorescent green water that is seen under the lights. Chlorine is also used to disinfect, though it is much less efficient, for it takes 15 minutes for it to do it's job, uses a larger space, and can be more dangerous. A new UV facility was being built that would save the plant 40% on energy, would get rid of the chlorine method, and allow for 36 million gallons to be disinfected a day. This new building cost $4 million, whereas the whole plant cost $8 million back in 1979.

"Mountain Dew" Water

      Ken showed us the holding tanks for the solid wastes, and what it was turned into. Two types of microorganisms are used to get rid of the solid waste: acid formers and methane formers. The acid formers eat the sludge, forming acid, which the methane formers eat to form methane gas and residual sludge. The big red tanks were used to hold the methane. Ken said, "We heat the whole building with methane gas," which is why the area and the building had a funky smell. The bug tanks were also heated with this methane gas. The left over sludge can also be used for fertilizers, though the small traces of metal in it can be dangerous for people's health. Ken finished off by showing us the laboratory, where many tests are done on the waste water. The water is tested monthly for metals, such as copper, and annually tested for major pollutants. He said that the annual test includes tests for over 600 different pollutants. That's a lot to keep track of.

The Laboratory

       Overall, the Franklin Wastewater Treatment Plant was an excellent and eye opening experience. While it may have been a little bit smelly, the experience was worth it. I applaud Ken for his 22 years of service at what seems to be a tough job. He went from the bottom to the top, with all his hard work and long hours put in on the job and in school. His passion for the job and to improve the environment was inspiring. I had no idea that that much had to be done to sewage water to make it semi-clean again. It was interesting learning about how people in the past have ruined their water sources and created health issues/environmental issues because they were too lazy to dispose of their waste the right way. The plant plays a large part in the local rivers' ecosystems, and without it, the ecosystems may be in much worse shape than they are. The Franklin Wastewater Treatment Plant plays an important role in keep the environment clean and healthy.
   

Cane Toads

Madison Powers
October 18, 2011
6:00 PM

     For my APES class, we viewed a movie on cane toads this previous Tuesday night. I found the film to be a lot more interesting that I would've thought of a 1980s science movie.

     Cane Toads, a native species to Hawaii, were introduced to northern Australia in 1935, on the 22nd of June. The reason for this? Cane grubs were ravaging the sugar crop in Australia, which in turn, had a great impact on the world sugar market. A 1932 conference in Puerto Rico decided that the cane toads would be introduced on Australia to control the grub. 102 toads were captured and shipped to Australia from Hawaii and introduced in Queensland. Introduced into a local swamp, the toads were expected to grow in population quickly and help eliminate the grub. What followed was what no one could've predicted.
      What is unique about the cane toad is that the female can live up to 40,000 eggs, with up to 30,000 of them surviving. Within 4 to 5 weeks of hatching, these toads can move from the water to the land, which is very quick. One scientist said that the toads can lay eggs, "just about anywhere." As long as there is water, the toad can lay eggs. Because the toad can lay eggs anywhere and they get out of the water at a young age, their survival rate is greatly increased. This high survival rate and uncontrolled population growth had not been predicted, and by 1945, cane toads had become a very large problem.
     In 1945, a pesticide had been discovered for the sugar grubs, and the toads were no longer needed to control grub populations. By now, though, the toads had become and issue. A Queensland native said that, "We brought in this monstrous thing called a toad." The toad had spread much quicker and widely than they had expected it to, and there was no way of controlling it. It was now considered an invasive species. Most of the northern part of Australia was covered in them, and they were expected to spread even further, including down the east coast. Many ponds were just overflowing with the toad, an idea that I believe is pretty disgusting.

      One thing that really caught my attention was how much some Australians love and worship this animal. This one man, who seemed to be a little off his rocker, said that, "I definitely think they're a harmless animal and no one has anything to fear of them...They are a magnificent animal." This man and his wife seemed to worship the toad. He let them crawl all over him, left the light on in his yard so they could catch bugs that were attracted to it, and always was happy about these toads. He and his wife even left cat food out for the toads to eat. I was surprised that the entire time he was talking about them he didn't break out into tears. Another shocking piece of information about the toads was that some people keep the toads as pets. They dressed them up, made them beds, had tea parties for them, treating the cane toads as if they were dolls. One little girl, who had her own pet toad named Dairy Queen (not it's only name), said, "When I tickle his tummy, he really likes that." This girls seemed to be torturing the toad, manhandling it and squeezing it, but I guess it didn't mind. Another town debated putting up a statue of the toad to honor it. Honoring a toad that is destroying your ecosystems and overall is just a pest does not seem like a great idea to me. While it may have brought in tourists, a statue of an invasive toad isn't the right fit; there are much better ideas for a tribute. The people's worshiping of the toad definitely was shocking, yet interesting.
     I also enjoyed the segment on the cane toad poison. The toads can excrete a poison that can be deadly to predators and people alike, something that many people do not recognize. It was a bit gross when the scientist showed how the toxin was excreted, but still fascinating that an abundant and seamlessly harmless toad could be so dangerous. To go along with the toads poison, the film mention that the toxins in the toad could be used as a drug. A man appeared on the screen, whose face was hidden by shadows, smoking something, possibly part of the toad. Cane toads can be used as a drug, by boiling them in water and drinking the water. It is said to cause hallucinations, increase mental capacity, and create vivid colors. This drug is considered a Class 1 narcotic in Australia and is monitored by the police.

      There were many traits that made the cane toad an invasive species and unique. One was that this basically eats anything that moves and is smaller than it. It was even said to try to eat bouncing ping pong balls. The toad also has a very strong sex drive, and can produce a large number of offspring. This sex drive was displayed when a male toad was shown trying to mate with a squished female who had been baking on the road for a day. It's poison is also unique, because anything that tries to eat it is killed by the toxins. This essentially means that the toad has no predators, and is impossible to control. One man described the toads as an, "excellent invasion machine." They adapt well, eat anything, can live as long as water is present, and have excellent predator defenses. The cane toad is essentially unstoppable. One man says he, "can't see a simple way of stopping it." The toad is going to invade even more, destroying ecosystems and the food chain in those ecosystems. By the time the movie had been filmed, the toads had already destroyed most of the habitat they lived in and had heavily impacted the animals there. The toad was simply unstoppable and a serious threat.
      Reflecting back on the movie, it turned out a lot better than I had expected to be. It had a bit of humor and fun in parts, which made it a good watch. While I myself have never dealt with an invasive species, I got a pretty good feel from the movie on what it would be like to deal with one. I feel it would be extremely difficult and annoying at times to have a species like the cane toad around at all times, and constantly spreading. I also learned that invasive species can have a highly dangerous impact, and can potentially destroy entire ecosystems.
      The movie may have been close to 30 years old, but I still feel that the ideas present are still relevant. Invasive species are today still have a great impact on ecosystems all over the world. For example, milfoil, lampreys, and zebra mussels all greatly impact lakes, ponds and rivers in the US. We as humans must make better decisions, for the decision we make could end up damaging out ecosystems for years to come, possibly forever. The cane toads movie was funny and interesting, yet taught that invasive species are devastating and we as humans must be more careful on what we put into our ecosystems.

Images:
http://www.ntnews.com.au/images/uploadedfiles/editorial/pictures/2008/07/17/toad-vs-snake-1.jpg
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Bufo_marinus_australian_range.png/220px-Bufo_marinus_australian_range.png
http://fireflyforest.net/images/firefly/2006/July/cane-toad-4.jpg

Two Mountain Farm

Madison Powers
October 3rd, 2011
Two Mountain Farm
Andover, New Hampshire
Rainy, 11:55 AM

     With the last bits of pizza crust being finished, we arrived at Kat Darling's Two Mountain Farm on Shaw Hill Road in East Andover. I was no stranger to the area, having driven by Kat's farm numerous times with my mom on her way to pick up eggs at a farm down the road. Kat immediately greeted our APES class, who had just devoured a few pizzas, with a smiling face. Kat, originally from Andover and an alum of Proctor, gave us a little background. She had gone to college out west, received a degree in creative writing and environmental science, and came back to the east coast, not really imagining she would become a farmer. Kat has had her farm on Shaw Hill for 6 years since getting into farming. She grows crops for markets, and is a part of Community Supported Agriculture, where consumers invest in the farmer's crops, and in return, receive fresh crops throughout the growing season, giving them a "close interaction with the farmer," as Kat said.  The property is made up of a mixed environment - both open fields with crops planted and untouched forest, home animals such as bears and turkeys.

© Dan Yeo

   Kat started off our visit by explaining farming as a whole, giving us an understanding of what it really was. Kat has found farming to include a lot of problem solving. For example, she has to work with weather conditions such as the rain we faced during our trip, or her tractor breaking down, both of which may be inconvenient, but not impossible to work around. She also stated that farming is all about systems and, "It's not just about picking and growing and selling the crops, but its about dealing with the layers of systems." Farming is all about systems working together and against each other on the same plane. These systems include the weather (rain, wind, heat), the seasons, and the cycle of nutrients just to name a few. With these systems, Kat has been trying to, "create a growing environment that's integrated with the systems around it." She has done this by focusing on crops that can grow well here, and grow well with the surrounding area. For example, she said avocados would be a bad crop choice here due to improper climate. Crops such as flowers, tomatoes, and green mixes are better choices for New Hampshire.

© Dan Yeom

    Animals play a very large part in Kat's farm. 2 years ago, she decided to bring chickens onto the farm because they, "play an important role for the soil." Chickens, along with other animals such as horses and pigs, create waste that is full of nutrients. This waste can then be recycled back onto the fields, providing key nutrients for the soil, allowing crops to grow better. Big farms have to order very large amounts of synthetic manure, which is inefficient. Kat, on the other hand, has manure created on her farm, eliminating that cost. In the 2 years that she has had her chickens, they have created at least 6 inches of soil in one particular plot of the farm, which she hopes to eventually turn into an herb garden. Not only do the chickens provide manure, but they also provide eggs, eat bugs and the seeds of weeds, and also are "mini rototillers". Kat says, "Soil is the most important element" on a farm, and with Chickens providing nutrients constantly to the soil, they play a very important role on her farm.

     Kat took us on a tour of her greenhouses, of which she had two different types. We first viewed her traditional greenhouse, with windows south facing. Both her fields and her greenhouse faced south, because by facing this way, they received the most sun. Kat said, "As a grower, I want take as much advantage of the sun as I can." More sun means more energy for the crops, which in turn leads to greater production. The temperature inside her greenhouse was 68 degree Fahrenheit, significantly higher than the outside, and also very humid. Inside this greenhouse, there were large trays of seedlings, mainly consisting of lettuce mixes. We walked across her fields to another set of greenhouses, these ones called "hoop houses". These greenhouses were made of a metal frame, covered with plastic for insulation. They were unheated, with no furnaces, fans, or electricity. The sides on these greenhouses could be rolled up, allowing for air flow to pass over the crops, one of the key systems needed for growing. The building also collected the heat that the Earth naturally lets off, providing a warm environment for growing in the late fall and winter. They may be advantageous, but also have disadvantages, such as no air flow, and the crops are not affected by the natural cycles such as weather. Overall, the advantages outweigh the disadvantages, and the hoop houses are a valuable tool.

 
     A question was raised on if Kat planted the same crops in the hoop houses year after year, and Kat explained her crop rotation and reason for it. If you plant the same thing in the same soil over and over again, the nutrients will be depleted and eventually be degraded to a point where it is no longer good. The idea of planting different crops in the same patch of soil in different intervals of time, for example every other year, is called crop rotation. The rotation of crops no only saves the soil, but also gets rid of crop-specific diseases. Her hoop houses also allow Kat to plant warm and cold crops, or crops that grow better during certain parts of the year. She can plant what the people will buy, because the hoop houses allow for that versatility. This versatility brought up a key point: diversity. Kat has over 40 different crops on her farm. Kat likes to think of it like this: "Don't put all your eggs in the same basket." What she means is that by growing all the same thing, you are setting yourself up for failure. If you plant all one crop, the soil will be depleted, and no longer good for growing. Also, if your crops get a disease, they can be wiped out, which leads to a wasted investment. By growing numerous crops, Kat is protecting herself from failure. The best environments have diversity, and by having a large variety of crops, Kat is recreating this diversity.

     While attempting to wait out the rain, we looked around one of the hoop houses. This one was full of wildlife, including wasps, bumblebees, and sparrows. Many of these critters are key for pollination, but some of them can be pests, Kat said. Insects like Japanese beetles and tomato horn worms can cause issues. To regulate them, Kat integrated pest management, attacking the pests from many angles. If she notices insects on a set of plants, she usually counts them. If there are a small number of them, she lets them be, but notes they are there. When the insect population grows, there is a bigger problem. She either removes them by hand picking them off the plants and disposing of them, or sometimes she sprays the plants with chemicals. Kat says, " I aim to be an organic grower." She tries to follow the organic farmer regulations as best as she can, though sometimes situations are permitted when she cannot. Another way she helps keep out pests is with a plastic fabric called remay. This cloth is placed over the crops, still allowing for them to get light and air, but insects cannot bother the plants. It also helps in the retention of heat.

© Dan Yeom

     In our attempts to avoid the rain, we headed to another hoop house, this one full of a passing tomato crop. These tomatoes were small and orange in color. For the sake of the experience, I tried one of these tomatoes. While they were extremely sweet, the tomato taste overpowered it, and I wasn't really a fan. As we made our way through the greenhouse, we looked for the big and ugly tomato horn worms. Kat spotted two of them from the doorway as we were getting ready to exit. The class inspected them, some students with gross looks on their faces while others stared in awe. This pest, Kat decided, we would take to feed her chickens. We made our way across her fields, through the horse pen and mud, hoping the rain would hold off. Unfortunately, none of the chickens would take the bait of the disgusting worms, and it began to rain extremely hard. We quickly made our way back to the bus, thanked Kat for the experience, and departed back to school, with time to spare before the next class.

     As I reflected on our trip to Two Mountain Farm, I realized that there is a lot more to farming than someone might think. It isn't just about planting, maintaining, harvesting, and selling, as Kat said, but dealing with the challenges provided by the different systems working together. The job requires a lot of problem solving, and persevering through the challenges. Kat has more work then she has time for, but she still has to provide crops for people. Her passion for farming makes me appreciate farmers even more. There is a lot more to farming than meets the eye.
 
    I realize now that I am even more grateful of the local farmers that provide us with food. They're jobs are tough, and many factors, such as the different cycles and systems, make their jobs even harder so we can get our eggs or pumpkins or tomatoes. Kat puts a lot of time into the farm, like many small farmers, so that the community can get what they need. The farmer that my mother gets her eggs and milk from must do the same, to constantly provide. Their hard work usually goes unnoticed in the community, but I greatly appreciate what they do for the community.

Our Impact on the Local Watershed

Madison Powers
Andover & Wilmot, New Hampshire
Thursday September 22, 2011
8:00 AM-9:10 AM

      The drive in to school on Thursday morning was accompanied by the splash of rain drops on the windshield and a sticky humidity. To top the lovely weather off, I had to be at school early, for an AP Environmental Science field trip, headed by the class's teacher, Alan McIntyre. The purpose of this trip was to explore the local watershed and discover how we as humans impacted it.
 
      We started our trip bright and early at 8:00 AM. It was slightly drizzling and the temperature was fairly warm for a September day. We boarded a Proctor minibus along with Alan and departed on our exploration, our first stop being the Blackwater River. 18,000 to 12,000 years ago, the Blackwater River was covered by an ice sheet nearly 8,000 feet thick. This heavy mass of ice, rocks, and sediment shaped the land, creating rivers such as the Blackwater.

      Not having payed attention to where we were going on the bus, I immediately recognized where we were. We had just driven over one covered bridges in Andover, not too far from Proctor's campus. Exiting the bus, we made our way down a narrow road, covered in sediment from the river. The surrounding trees were mainly small oak and beach, accompanied by some small shrubs and grasses. Part of the road had been replaced with some crushed rock, most likely to hold the river bank in place during flooding. We reached a small beach on the Blackwater and Alan stopped, introducing us to the Blackwater. Students began conducting small test on the water. It was discovered that the water was 57 degrees Fahrenheit and the pH of the water was 6.2, a little bit acidic.

      Alan began introduced a concept known as the ABCs of nature. A stands for "abiotic", the non-living part of nature. B stands for "biotic", the living part of nature. And C stands for "cycles" or "changes", what is constantly happening between the abiotic and biotic parts of nature. The river was a system that represented these ABCs. Alan stated that, "This system is alive, it's dynamic. It's constantly changing and moving." Alan describe how the abiotic features, such as the flow rate, turbidity, nutrients being carried in the water (such as nitrogen and oxygen), and sediment affected its biotic features, such as mosquitos (which seemed to be overwhelmingly present) and plant life. The water carries the abiotics, he said. Abiotics such as the flow of the water cut the river banks, shaping the river. The sediment, another abiotic, is then deposited on the banks, which gives plants nutrients to grow. The abiotic parts working with the biotic pieces help create a dynamic river system that flourishes

      Our second stop on our journey was at the junction of Routes 4 and 4A, near the Blackwater Diner. We pulled off the road in a little turnaround, and were immediately met with a swarm of mosquitoes as we left the bus. With nets, insect guides, and a bag full of devices with all the bells and whistles in hand, we made out way down to the river bank. Alan made his way into the water, inviting anyone who was able to join him. There was a distinct line of debris about 6 or 8 feet back from the river's edge, possible from the recent Hurricane, Irene. There was also a large amount of pines in the area, their needles spread all over the ground. The water was not any warmer here, either, being measured at 55.9 degrees Fahrenheit.

       Alan explained that this river was a tributary from the Eagle Pond to the Blackwater River. This area was much more open than the last, and, being nearer to the highway, cars could be heard zipping past. The openness had an impact on river life, too. Alan demonstrated this idea by reaching down and plucking a rock from the water, exclaiming, "The rocks are black!" He went on to say, "These rocks are covered in algae, they're active." The reasoning for this was because of the openness in the area which allowed for more sunlight to penetrate the water. With more sunlight, Alan explained, more photosynthesis could happen, which leads to more plant life. The water was also shallower, too, which helps with light penetration. A few students using a net captured a couple stone flies, which were fairly ugly to be honest. Alan said that stone flies were a species that could only live in low polluted areas, which meant that this part of the river had minimal pollutants.

      Alan introduced the history of the area. Eagle Pond, which is located upriver, is located downriver of a landfill. In the 1970s, Eagle Pond turned and orangish-red color, due to the leaky landfill. These abiotic chemicals flowed downriver, into the Blackwater. Alan segwayed this into the impact that the nearby road has on the river. Alan said, "A whole new set of abiotic inputs are coming from the road." Salts, oils, antifreeze, and trashes are all abiotic materials that we don't intentionally put into the river, but end up in it. These contaminants flow into the Blackwater, and from the Blackwater to the Merrimack River, which in turn leads to the ocean. Essentially, humans are polluting the ocean due to the leaking of pollution into rivers.

      The final leg of our trip was to Pleasant Lake in Wilmot, New Hampshire. The place we arrived at was the dam, a place I had caught crayfish and minnows at as a child during my summer days at the beach. Elkins was the headwaters to the Blackwater. Dipping my feet in, the water was much warmer, 64.7 degrees Fahrenheit to be exact. Alan explained that this was because, "Water resists change." The large body of water held the warm summer heat for much larger, making the lake warm and allowing for all sorts of life forms because of that energy, he explained.

      When we arrived at the lake, one girl immediately recognized the place and said, "This is where we put my boat in." Alan brought up a similar point while we were all wading in the water. The water here was heavily impacted by humans. He pointed out all of the houses around the lake, and described how fertilizers and chemical run off from the houses ended up in the water. Not to mention, the water was also constantly impacted by boats, for example. Oil and human wastes end up in the lake. "What happens here flows down river, collects with all the other stuff, and eventually ends up in the ocean," Alan said. This idea is shocking, because the pollutants that we release in a small lake in New Hampshire can end up in all parts of the globe, impacting many life forms.

        The areas of exploration were not new to me, being a local student. Growing up in Andover, I have visited these places numerous times and thought no more of them than a river or lake, taking them for granted. On the bus ride back, though, I reflected on what I had recognized for the first time in 16 years in the area. Our impact as humans on the local ecosystems can be huge. These impacts on local ecosystems can lead to impacts on large ecosystems, which can be a major problem.

      The impacts we have on these ecosystems aren't only on the water., but on all life forms in those ecosystems. All of the plants, fish, insects, etc are being polluted with our abiotic chemical inputs, building up as they move up the food chain. Eventually, this negative impact is going to come back to us. Our Earth is in trouble, and to fix some of it's problems, we must think small, back to the sources of our issues, such as polluting our local rivers and lakes.

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